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Simple Device Driver Makefile

64-bit Device Driver Development

This article is intended to be a quickstart guide for building, loading, and debugging a simple device driver for a 64-bit Windows 7 system. Basic familiarity with device driver development and kernel debugging is assumed. For more of an introduction I recommend Toby Opferman s articles at CodeProject which are still mostly relevant despite being several years old. Also, as a security professional my interest and expertise with device drivers is limited to the use of kernel-mode code to modify operating system behavior, rather than interfacing with actual hardware devices.

Instructions are provided for using WinDbg for remote kernel debugging to a VirtualBox virtual machine. The procedure is similar for using VMware and other virtualization software. Note that running a 64-bit guest operating system in a virtual machine requires a CPU which supports hardware-assisted virtualization Intel-VT or AMD-V. I ended up having to upgrade the processor in one of my systems after finding out that it lacked Intel-VT support. It also may be necessary to go into the BIOS setup and ensure that the hardware virtualization is enabled.

Differences

There are several differences from earlier versions of Windows affecting device driver developers:

Driver Signing. 64-bit Windows systems will not allow drivers to be loaded unless they have a valid digital signature, which requires a signing key to be purchased from Microsoft. This is only made available to approved vendors and is not really an option for the hobbyist or researcher. For development and testing there is an option that can be selected from the boot menu to disable driver signing requirements. This cannot be made the default and must be manually selected at every boot. This is a nuisance for driver developers but is generally a good thing as it makes it harder for malware writers to install kernel rootkits.

Debugging Message Filtering. Beginning with Vista including 32-bit versions, all debugging messages printed by drivers are not necessarily displayed in the kernel debugger. Rather, the system must be configured to display messages matching certain criteria.

Kernel Patch Protection PatchGuard. Modifying certain kernel data structures is no longer allowed, again in an effort to crack down on kernel rootkits. Drivers that rely on certain techniques for hooking system calls may need to use an alternate approach. For details see Microsoft s Patching Policy for x64-Based Systems.

Sample Code

In addition to the minimal DriverEntry and DriverUnload routines, this sample driver also implements a Device I/O Control IOCTL interface for communicating from user to kernel mode.

//testdrv.c

include

define DEVICE_NAME L Device Testdrv

define DOS_DEVICE_NAME L DosDevices Testdrv

//numeric value 0x22a001

define IOCTL_TESTDRV CTL_CODE FILE_DEVICE_UNKNOWN, 0x800, METHOD_IN_DIRECT, FILE_WRITE_DATA

//macros for OACR

DRIVER_INITIALIZE DriverEntry;

DRIVER_UNLOAD TestdrvUnload;

__drv_dispatchType IRP_MJ_CREATE

__drv_dispatchType IRP_MJ_CLOSE

__drv_dispatchType IRP_MJ_DEVICE_CONTROL

DRIVER_DISPATCH TestdrvDispatch;

pragma alloc_text INIT, DriverEntry

pragma alloc_text PAGE, TestdrvUnload

pragma alloc_text PAGE, TestdrvDispatch

//log message with filter mask IHVDRIVER and severity level INFO

void DebugInfo char str

DbgPrintEx DPFLTR_IHVDRIVER_ID, DPFLTR_INFO_LEVEL, testdrv: s n, str ;

NTSTATUS TestdrvDispatch PDEVICE_OBJECT DeviceObject, PIRP Irp

PIO_STACK_LOCATION iostack;

NTSTATUS status STATUS_NOT_SUPPORTED;

PCHAR buf;

ULONG len;

PAGED_CODE ;

iostack IoGetCurrentIrpStackLocation Irp ;

switch iostack- MajorFunction

case IRP_MJ_CREATE:

case IRP_MJ_CLOSE:

status STATUS_SUCCESS;

break;

case IRP_MJ_DEVICE_CONTROL:

if iostack- Parameters.DeviceIoControl.IoControlCode IOCTL_TESTDRV

len iostack- Parameters.DeviceIoControl.InputBufferLength;

buf PCHAR Irp- AssociatedIrp.SystemBuffer;

//verify null-terminated and print string to debugger

if buf len-1 0

DebugInfo buf ;

else

status STATUS_INVALID_PARAMETER;

default:

status STATUS_INVALID_DEVICE_REQUEST;

Irp- IoStatus.Status status;

Irp- IoStatus.Information 0;

IoCompleteRequest Irp, IO_NO_INCREMENT ;

return status;

VOID TestdrvUnload PDRIVER_OBJECT DriverObject

UNICODE_STRING dosdev;

DebugInfo driver unloading ;

RtlInitUnicodeString dosdev, DOS_DEVICE_NAME ;

IoDeleteSymbolicLink dosdev ;

IoDeleteDevice DriverObject- DeviceObject ;

NTSTATUS DriverEntry PDRIVER_OBJECT DriverObject,

PUNICODE_STRING RegistryPath

UNICODE_STRING devname, dosname;

PDEVICE_OBJECT devobj;

NTSTATUS status;

DebugInfo driver initializing ;

DriverObject- MajorFunction IRP_MJ_CREATE TestdrvDispatch;

DriverObject- MajorFunction IRP_MJ_CLOSE TestdrvDispatch;

DriverObject- MajorFunction IRP_MJ_DEVICE_CONTROL TestdrvDispatch;

DriverObject- DriverUnload TestdrvUnload;

RtlInitUnicodeString devname, DEVICE_NAME ;

RtlInitUnicodeString dosname, DOS_DEVICE_NAME ;

status IoCreateDevice DriverObject, 0, devname, FILE_DEVICE_UNKNOWN,

FILE_DEVICE_SECURE_OPEN, FALSE, devobj ;

if . NT_SUCCESS status

DebugInfo error creating device ;

status IoCreateSymbolicLink dosname, devname ;

DebugInfo error creating symbolic link ;

return STATUS_SUCCESS;

Building

There are two additional files required to build a device driver: sources and makefile the file names do not have extensions. sources should contain the following lines:

TARGETNAME testdrv

TARGETTYPE DRIVER

SOURCES testdrv.c

makefile only needs to contain this one line:

.INCLUDE NTMAKEENV makefile.def

Build the driver as follows:

Of course the Windows Driver Kit WDK must be installed. The WDK also includes the Debugging Tools for Windows WinDbg.

From the Windows Driver Kit start menu group, launch the command-line build environment for the desired target platform and architecture, e.g. Windows 7 x64 Checked Build Environment.

Change to the directory containing  testdrv.c, sources, and makefile, and enter the command build.

If all goes well the driver file testdrv.sys will be built in a subdirectory named according the selected platform and architecture, e.g. objchk_win7_amd64.

By default the WDK will start a program called OACR Auto Code Review that will display an icon in the taskbar and automatically detect when a driver is being built and analyze the code for common programming errors. There are some declarations in the testdrv.c source code for preventing OACR warning messages. For details see Microsoft Auto Code Review.

Debugging Message Filtering

Note in the sample source code that the DbgPrintEx function is used with additional parameters, as opposed to the standard DbgPrint. The additional parameters are the Component ID and Severity Level. Only the component IDs defined in dpfilter.h that start with DPFLTR_IHV_ should be used by driver developers. IHV stands for Independent Hardware Vendor, i.e. any third-party non-Microsoft driver.

This example uses the generic DPFLTR_IHVDRIVER but other more specific IDs are available for video/audio/network/etc. drivers. The severity level can technically be any 32-bit number but standard constants exist for ERROR, WARNING, TRACE, and INFO levels corresponding to the numeric values 0, 1, 2, and 3, respectively. ERROR should only be used to indicate a truly serious error, but otherwise it is a matter of preference. This example logs everything at INFO level.

For each Component ID, the system maintains a kernel variable named Kd__Mask which is a 32-bit number representing a bit mask for the severity levels of debugging messages that should be displayed. For example, if bit 3 in this variable is set to 1, then INFO level messages will come through. The full list of these variables can be seen in WinDbg with this command:

kd x nt.Kd_ _Mask

fffff800 02e03198 nt.Kd_LDR_Mask

fffff800 02e031ec nt.Kd_WDI_Mask

fffff800 02e0304c nt.Kd_SETUP_Mask

fffff800 02e03150 nt.Kd_DMIO_Mask

The current value of the IHVDRIVER mask can be displayed as follows it should be zero by default :

kd dd nt.Kd_IHVDRIVER_Mask L1

fffff800 02e03178  00000000

This value can be modified directly in the debugger and will take effect immediately and persist until the system is rebooted. For example, to set the lowest 4 bits and therefore enable debugging messages for levels ERROR thru INFO, set the value to hex 0x0000000f:

kd ed nt.Kd_IHVDRIVER_Mask f

To make this change permanent, create a registry value IHVDRIVER must be uppercase in HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE SYSTEM CurrentControlSet Control Session Manager Debug Print Filter. The value should be a DWORD corresponding to the desired mask, e.g. 0x0000000f. The change will not take effect until the next reboot.

Refer to Reading and Filtering Debugging Messages for more information.

Note that debug messages will not display in the kernel debugger during local kernel debugging no matter what you do. The only options for seeing messages in local kernel debugging are to execute the. dbgprint command periodically or use the DebugView tool from SysInternals.

Test Program

The following user-mode application can be used to invoke the DeviceIoControl IOCTL interface and pass data into the driver.

//ioctltest.c

define UNICODE

define _UNICODE

define DEVICE_NAME L. Testdrv

define IOCTL_CODE 0x22a001

const char message Greetings from user mode ;

void debug char text

LPTSTR msgbuf;

//get error message string for last error

FormatMessage FORMAT_MESSAGE_ALLOCATE_BUFFER FORMAT_MESSAGE_FROM_SYSTEM,

NULL, GetLastError, LANG_USER_DEFAULT,

LPTSTR msgbuf, 0, NULL ;

printf s: S n, text, msgbuf ;

int wmain int argc, wchar_t argv

HANDLE hDevice;

char outBuf 16 ;

DWORD returned;

hDevice CreateFile DEVICE_NAME, GENERIC_READ GENERIC_WRITE,

FILE_SHARE_READ FILE_SHARE_WRITE, NULL, OPEN_EXISTING,

FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL, NULL ;

if hDevice INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE

debug error opening device ;

if 0 DeviceIoControl hDevice, IOCTL_CODE, message, sizeof message,

outBuf, sizeof outBuf, returned, NULL

debug ioctl error ;

CloseHandle hDevice ;

return 0;

Build with:

cl ioctltest.c

Virtual Machine Configuration

This section assumes that Windows 7 64-bit has been installed in a VirtualBox virtual machine. The following steps will prepare the virtual system for driver loading and kernel debugging. First, with the virtual machine powered off, configure the virtual serial port to point to a named pipe for the kernel debugger to connect to:

Next, enable kernel debugging in the Boot Configuration Database using the built-in bcdedit command line tool, and also configure the boot menu to always display at boot. There is also a nice free GUI tool EasyBCD available for modifying these settings. Start a command prompt with administrator privileges and run the following commands:

bcdedit /set current debug yes

bcdedit /set bootmgr displaybootmenu yes

Run bcdedit with no parameters to confirm the current configuration.

Finally, reboot the virtual machine. When the boot menu is displayed, press F8 and then select Disable Driver Signature Enforcement from the menu.

Attaching Debugger

This section assumes that debugging symbols have already been configured in WinDbg on the host system. For more information see Debugging Tools and Symbols on MSDN. Launch WinDbg on the host system, select File- Kernel Debug and specify the following settings:

Press Ctrl-Break or select Debug- Break from the menu and wait patiently. Kernel debugging over the virtual serial port is SLOW – it may take several seconds before any feedback is received at all from the Break request, and may take 30 seconds or more for the prompt to display:

You are seeing this message because you pressed either

CTRL C if you run kd.exe or,

CTRL BREAK if you run WinDBG,

on your debugger machine s keyboard.

THIS IS NOT A BUG OR A SYSTEM CRASH

If you did not intend to break into the debugger, press the g key, then

press the Enter key now. This message might immediately reappear. If it

does, press g and Enter again.

nt.DbgBreakPointWithStatus:

fffff800 026c87a0 cc int 3

This confirms that kernel debugging is working. If nothing happens, double-check the virtual serial port settings, debug boot configuration, and WinDbg connection settings.

Configure the debugging message filter mask as previously discussed:

Finally, enter g at the prompt to resume execution of the virtual machine.

Testing driver

Copy the testdrv.sys driver to the virtual machine using the drag-and-drop or shared folder support. Also copy over the test program ioctltest.exe.

The driver can be installed using the built-in Windows command-line tool sc.exe. This can also be done using the GUI tool OSRLoader available from OSR Online free registration required. To use sc.exe, start a command prompt with administrative privileges and run the following commands replacing c: testdrv.sys with the path where testdrv.sys is located on the virtual machine :

sc create testdrv binPath c: testdrv.sys type kernel

Note that the spaces after the equals signs are required. A pop-up warning may be received about the driver not having a valid digital signature, which can be ignored. The sc create command only needs to be run once, and from then on the driver can be just be started and stopped as desired. All the sc create command does is create the necessary registry entries under HKLM System CurrentControlSet Services testdrv. The registry entries can be removed if needed with sc delete testdrv.

To load the driver:

sc start testdrv

If the driver starts successfully, the following message should be seen in the kernel debugger if the message is not seen, double-check the filter mask settings :

testdrv: driver initializing

Next, run ioctltest.exe and the following output should be seen in the debugger:

testdrv: Greetings from user mode

The driver can be unloaded with sc stop and the following message should be seen:

testdrv: driver unloading.

This article is intended to be a quickstart guide for building, loading, and debugging a simple device driver for a 64-bit Windows 7 system.

The Linux Kernel Module Programming Guide is a free book; you may reproduce and/or modify it under the terms of the Open Software License, version 1.1.

Do you pine for the nice days of Minix-1.1, when men were men and wrote their own device drivers. Linus Torvalds Pre-requisites In order to develop Linux device.

/dev/hello_world: A Simple Introduction to Device Drivers under Linux by Valerie Henson 07/05/2007 Since the misty days of yore, the first step in learning a new.

Linux Device Drivers, 3rd Edition

My current work involves writing my first Linux block device driver. Going to the web to find a sample, I discovered Jonathan Corbet s Simple Block Driver article with its associated block driver example code. It s a nice succinct implementation of a ramdisk - pretty much the simplest working block device. There s only one problem, though, the article was written in 2003, when kernel 2.6.0 was the new kid on the block. Trying to build it on openSUSE 11.2 with kernel 2.6.31 just produced a slew of compile errors. A bit of research revealed that there were major changes to the kernel block device interface in 2.6.31, so I would have to port the example to get it working.

About a day and a half of poring through the kernel source and the excellent LDD3 hardcopy later, I had a running simple block driver for kernel 2.6.31. I ve also tested it successfully on SUSE 11 SP1 Beta, which uses kernel 2.6.32. Here s the code, followed by instructions for getting it working.

sbd.c

/

A sample, extra-simple block driver. Updated for kernel 2.6.31.

C 2003 Eklektix, Inc.

C 2010 Pat Patterson

Redistributable under the terms of the GNU GPL.

/

include

include / printk /

include / everything /

include / error codes /

include / size_t /

MODULE_LICENSE Dual BSD/GPL ;

static char Version 1.4 ;

static int major_num 0;

module_param major_num, int, 0 ;

static int logical_block_size 512;

module_param logical_block_size, int, 0 ;

static int nsectors 1024; / How big the drive is /

module_param nsectors, int, 0 ;

We can tweak our hardware sector size, but the kernel talks to us

in terms of small sectors, always.

define KERNEL_SECTOR_SIZE 512

Our request queue.

static struct request_queue Queue;

The internal representation of our device.

static struct sbd_device

unsigned long size;

spinlock_t lock;

u8 data;

struct gendisk gd;

Device;

Handle an I/O request.

static void sbd_transfer struct sbd_device dev, sector_t sector,

unsigned long nsect, char buffer, int write

unsigned long offset sector logical_block_size;

unsigned long nbytes nsect logical_block_size;

if offset nbytes dev- size

printk KERN_NOTICE sbd: Beyond-end write ld ld n, offset, nbytes ;

return;

if write

memcpy dev- data offset, buffer, nbytes ;

else

memcpy buffer, dev- data offset, nbytes ;

static void sbd_request struct request_queue q

struct request req;

req blk_fetch_request q ;

while req. NULL

// blk_fs_request was removed in 2.6.36 - many thanks to

// Christian Paro for the heads up and fix

//if . blk_fs_request req

if req NULL req- cmd_type. REQ_TYPE_FS

printk KERN_NOTICE Skip non-CMD request n ;

__blk_end_request_all req, -EIO ;

continue;

sbd_transfer Device, blk_rq_pos req, blk_rq_cur_sectors req,

req- buffer, rq_data_dir req ;

if . __blk_end_request_cur req, 0

The HDIO_GETGEO ioctl is handled in blkdev_ioctl, which

calls this. We need to implement getgeo, since we can t

use tools such as fdisk to partition the drive otherwise.

int sbd_getgeo struct block_device block_device, struct hd_geometry geo

long size;

/ We have no real geometry, of course, so make something up. /

size Device.size logical_block_size / KERNEL_SECTOR_SIZE ;

geo- cylinders size 0x3f 6;

geo- heads 4;

geo- sectors 16;

geo- start 0;

return 0;

The device operations structure.

static struct block_device_operations sbd_ops

.owner THIS_MODULE,

.getgeo sbd_getgeo

;

static int __init sbd_init void

/

Set up our internal device.

Device.size nsectors logical_block_size;

spin_lock_init Device.lock ;

Device.data vmalloc Device.size ;

if Device.data NULL

return -ENOMEM;

Get a request queue.

Queue blk_init_queue sbd_request, Device.lock ;

if Queue NULL

goto out;

blk_queue_logical_block_size Queue, logical_block_size ;

Get registered.

major_num register_blkdev major_num, sbd ;

if major_num 0

printk KERN_WARNING sbd: unable to get major number n ;

And the gendisk structure.

Device.gd alloc_disk 16 ;

if . Device.gd

goto out_unregister;

Device.gd- major major_num;

Device.gd- first_minor 0;

Device.gd- fops sbd_ops;

Device.gd- private_data Device;

strcpy Device.gd- disk_name, sbd0 ;

set_capacity Device.gd, nsectors ;

Device.gd- queue Queue;

add_disk Device.gd ;

out_unregister:

unregister_blkdev major_num, sbd ;

out:

vfree Device.data ;

static void __exit sbd_exit void

del_gendisk Device.gd ;

put_disk Device.gd ;

blk_cleanup_queue Queue ;

module_init sbd_init ;

module_exit sbd_exit ;

Makefile

obj-m : sbd.o

KDIR : /lib/modules/ shell uname -r /build

PWD : shell pwd

default:

MAKE -C KDIR SUBDIRS PWD modules

There are two main areas of change compared with Jonathan s original:

sbd_request uses the blk_fetch_request, blk_rq_pos, blk_rq_cur_sectors and __blk_end_request_cur functions rather than elv_next_request, req- sector, req- current_nr_sectors and end_request respectively. The structure of the loop also changes so we handle each sector from the request individually. One outstanding task for me is to investigate whether req- buffer holds all of the data for the entire request, so I can handle it all in one shot, rather than sector-by-sector. My first attempt resulted in the virtual machine hanging when I installed the driver, so I clearly need to do some more work in this area.

The driver implements the getgeo operation in sbd_getgeo, rather than ioctl, since blkdev_ioctl now handles HDIO_GETGEO by calling the driver s getgeo function. This is a nice simplification since it moves a copy_to_user call out of each driver and into the kernel.

Before building, ensure you have the kernel source, headers, gcc, make etc - if you ve read this far, you likely have all this and/or know how to get it, so I won t spell it all out here. You ll also need to go to the kernel source directory and do the following to prepare your build environment, if you have not already done so:

cd /usr/src/ uname -r

make oldconfig make prepare

Now, back in the directory with the sbd source, you can build it:

make -C /lib/modules/ uname -r /build M pwd modules

You ll see a warning about Version being defined, but not used, but don t worry about that :-. Now we can load the module, partition the ramdisk, make a filesystem, mount it, and create a file:

opensuse:/home/pat/sbd insmod sbd.ko

opensuse:/home/pat/sbd fdisk /dev/sbd0

Device contains neither a valid DOS partition table, nor Sun, SGI or OSF disklabel

Building a new DOS disklabel with disk identifier 0x5f93978c.

Changes will remain in memory only, until you decide to write them.

After that, of course, the previous content won t be recoverable.

Warning: invalid flag 0x0000 of partition table 4 will be corrected by w rite

Command m for help : n

Command action

e extended

p primary partition 1-4

p

Partition number 1-4 : 1

First cylinder 1-16, default 1 :

Using default value 1

Last cylinder, cylinders or size K,M,G 1-16, default 16 :

Using default value 16

Command m for help : w

The partition table has been altered.

Calling ioctl to re-read partition table.

Syncing disks.

opensuse:/home/pat/sbd mkfs /dev/sbd0p1

mke2fs 1.41.9 22-Aug-2009

Filesystem label

OS type: Linux

Block size 1024 log 0

Fragment size 1024 log 0

64 inodes, 504 blocks

25 blocks 4.96 reserved for the super user

First data block 1

Maximum filesystem blocks 524288

1 block group

8192 blocks per group, 8192 fragments per group

64 inodes per group

Writing inode tables: done

Writing superblocks and filesystem accounting information: done

This filesystem will be automatically checked every 24 mounts or

180 days, whichever comes first. Use tune2fs -c or -i to override.

opensuse:/home/pat/sbd mount /dev/sbd0p1 /mnt

opensuse:/home/pat/sbd echo Hi /mnt/file1

opensuse:/home/pat/sbd cat /mnt/file1

Hi

opensuse:/home/pat/sbd ls -l /mnt

total 13

-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 3 2010-04-29 file1

drwx------ 2 root root 12288 2010-04-29 lost found

opensuse:/home/pat/sbd umount /mnt

opensuse:/home/pat/sbd rmmod sbd

Hopefully this all works for you, and is as useful for you as it has been for me. Many thanks to Jonathan for the original version and the excellent LDD3. One final piece of housekeeping - although the comment at the top of sbd.c mentions only GPL, the MODULE_LICENSE macro specifies Dual BSD/GPL. I am interpreting the original code as being under the dual GPL/BSD license and this version is similarly dual licensed.

UPDATE Feb 5 2011 See the comment by Michele regarding changes to logical_block_size.

UPDATE Apr 23 2015 See the comment by Sarge regarding changes for kernel 3.15-rc2 and later.

My current work involves writing my first Linux block device driver. Going to the web to find a sample, I discovered Jonathan Corbet s Simple Block Driver article.

Class Offerings. Class Schedule. Distance Learning. On-Site. Academic Program. Student Feedback. Certification. Courseware. Linux Device Driver Training.

Goal I am trying to write a simple device driver on Ubuntu. I want to do this using Eclipse or a better IDE that is suitable for driver programming. Here is the.

Supplements To Activate Brown Fat

The Blood Sugar Solution 10-Day Detox Diet: Activate Your Body s Natural Ability to Burn Fat and Lose Weight Fast Mark Hyman on Amazon.com.

Thermo Heat helps your body turn fat into thermogenic tissue. Yes, you heard that right. The enemy becomes an ally in our fight for a lean, sculpted body.

Brown Fat: The Body Fat That Actually Keeps You Lean And How To Activate It

Key points

In the human body white fat predominates over brown fat by volume. White fat stores energy as triglycerides and is abundant in the midsection and thighs.  Brown fat expends energy in the form of heat and is located in the neck and collarbone area.

Brown fat implanted into animals improves their ability to utilize insulin.

Brown fat positive subjects don t gain weight with advancing age.

For many years it was mistakenly believed the adult human body had no measurable amount of brown fat. PET scans began to reveal brown fat about a decade ago.  The drawback of PET scans is that they only reveal activated brown fat.

Obese individuals exhibit a slightly reduced body temperature during the day compared to lean individuals which results weight gain.

More than 60 of the variance in body mass and body fat is determined by brown fat.

Cold temperature, insulin, iron, thyroid hormone and adrenal stress hormones norepinephrine activate brown fat. Iron deficiency and beta blockers reduce brown fat volume.

There are no drugs approved to activate brown fat. A number of nutraceuticals activate brown fat: resveratrol, garlic, capsaicin red pepper, melatonin, fish oil, curcumin, fucoxanthin from seaweed, green tea

The healthy Mediterranean and traditional Japanese diets include foods, spices and teas that activate brown fat.

Introduction

A previously overlooked type of fat in the body that generates heat and is associated with leanness is now being avidly investigated.

Brown fat, also called adipose tissue BAT, along with white fat are the two types of fat found in mammals.  An average adult has about 30 billion white fat cells, which accounts for about 30 lbs. of total weight, but far less brown fat.  Brown fat s major function is to generate body heat while white fat s role is to store energy. Journal Cellular Physiology March 11, 2015   White fat stores energy in the form of triglycerides. Frontiers Medicine Jan 8, 2015

When brown fat is implanted in animals, their metabolism insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance is improved. Journal Clinical Investigation Jan 2013   So brown fat s health benefits extend beyond weight control.

In fact, brown fat is not just beneficial for the waistline.  It is also considered a powerful therapeutic avenue to ameliorate high cholesterol and protect from arterial disease. Nature Communications March 2015

The renewed scientific interest in heat-generating brown fat is due to the relatively recent recognition that humans have an abundant amount of this fat.

For many years it as mistakenly believed that brown fat was only present in babies still in the womb and disappeared after birth. It is now known that the majority of humans have brown fat.

Over the past decade when PET scans began to be used to visualize the location, size and growth of tumors by the infusion of radioactive sugar, areas around the neck and collarbone exhibited active metabolic activity and uptake of sugar, evidence of heat and energy expenditure that was identified as brown fat.  The mistaken idea that brown fat is not found in adult humans was erased. Current Diabetes Reports April 2010

Brown fat is more commonly detected in women and in younger and leaner individuals.  It is now believed that brown fat can be activated to manage body weight. Current Opinion Clinical Nutrition Metabolic Care Jan 2011; American Journal Physiology Endocrinology Metabolism Oct 2010

Brown fat is not only distinguished from white fat by its color but also by its iron content that gives it a tan to dark red color.  The fat that builds up around the midsection and thighs is white fat while brown fat is mainly found around the collarbones and neck bones.  Medical News Today Sept 15, 2014

PET scans reveal brown fat

As technologically advanced as PET scans are, they underestimate the prevalence of brown fat because they only measure activated brown fat. Current Opinion Clinical Nutrition Metabolic Care Jan 2011   And of course, PET scans expose subjects to a radiation hazard.  So they should not be utilized to routinely screen for activated brown fat, which is a transient condition anyway.

To prove the presence of brown fat in healthy human adults a group of 162 volunteers underwent PET scan after 2 hours of exposure to cold temperature.  Cold-activated brown fat was detected in 41 of subjects with the brown fat-positive group being younger and leaner.  Brown fat decreased with advancing age, being more than 50 in the 20s but less than 10 in the 50s and 60s.  Obesity Sept 2011

However, even among those individuals who do not exhibit activated brown fat on a PET scan, researchers say PET scans are not optimal for imaging brown fat and that regardless of PET scan status, brown fat is highly prevalent in adult humans. Journal Clinical Endocrinology Metabolism Aug 2011

The detection of brown fat by PET scan is protective against diabetes and obesity.  Molecular Imaging Biology Dec 2011

Subjects whose brown fat doesn t readily take up sugar as visualized on a PET scan tend to have modestly higher blood sugar levels.

PET scans reveal 7.5 of women and 3.1 of men have activated brown fat. New England Journal of Medicine April 9, 2009

Health benefits of brown fat

While the traditional description of the origin of obesity is rooted in an imbalance between energy intake food consumption and expenditure such as exercise, only now have researchers discovered a metabolic difference between the lean and obese.

In the animal lab, mice whose brown fat has been increased or activated are lean and protected from obesity.  It is the age-related change in brown fat activation that likely explains why the young are generally lean and fat mass increases with advancing age in adulthood.  Journal Cell Physiology March 11, 2015

About 50 of used energy is used to maintain a constant body core temperature.  For the first time researchers now report that lean individuals exhibit a slightly higher core body temperature 100.22 Fahrenheit compared to 98.24 F for obese individuals during the day AM to PM but not at night.  This body core temperature difference would account for the accumulation of 4.4 lbs. 2.0 kilograms of body weight per year.  Chronobiology International 2015

Just a few pounds of weight difference in a year between those who have activated brown fat in their body and others who do not may sound almost trivial to a person who is 50, 75, even 100 pounds overweight.  However, in one study it was determined that brown fat activity explains 64 of the variance in body mass and 60 of the variance in body fat from individual to individual.  This is very compelling.

In one study only 3 out of 15 morbidly obese subjects exhibited cold-temperature induced brown fat activity PLoS One Feb 24, 2011

The current turn away from fat phobia and towards avoidance of refined sugars and carbohydrate intake bread, rice, pasta is now well substantiated to produce leaner and healthier humans.  Cardiovascular Journal Africa 2014 However, unexpectedly, a low carbohydrate/high-fat diet did not produce leaner animals in the laboratory due to an increase in brown fat activation.  Carbohydrate avoidance worked by other mechanisms. PLoS One June 13, 2012   But another study shows limitation of carbohydrates did improve brown fat volume. Nutrition April 2014.  Indeed, adults with diabetes have been shown to choose foods that provide higher amounts of sugar and carbohydrates and lower in fat.  Nutrition Diabetes Feb 2014

And here is a striking fact: brown fat-positive subjects do not gain weight with advancing age. Obesity Sept 2011

Individuals with constitutional thinness, even at temperature-neutral conditions, have a 16.7 times greater glucose uptake in  brown fat compared with normal weight control individuals.  Journal Clinical Endocrinology Metabolism March 2013

 What increases brown fat.

Cold temperature, iron and lack of iron deficiency, insulin that facilitates iron availability, thyroid hormone and norepinephrine, an adrenal stress hormone, are involved in the conversion of white fat to brown fat as well as the activation of brown fat to produce heat.

Cold temperature

Brown fat is known as hibernation fat.  This is because cold temperature increases metabolic activity and brown fat uptake of sugar glucose from the liver is 10-15 times higher in cold versus normal room temperature.  Current Opinion Lipidology Feb 2011

Brown fat is greater in hibernating animals due to its activation by an internal antioxidant enzyme called heme oxygenase-1.  Modest biological threats such as radiation and food deprivation activate an internal guardian of genes called heme oxygenase-1 via the Nrf2 gene activator. Canadian Journal Physiology Pharmacology March 2010

Exposure to cold temperature, thyroid hormone supplementation and implantation of brown fat, have been shown to improve sugar glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity ability of cells to utilize insulin.   Frontiers Physiology Jan 2015

In a cold temperature climate researchers in the Netherlands found 96 of subjects were brown-fat positive. New England Journal Medicine April 9, 2009

When adults were tested there was no detectable uptake of radioactive sugar into tissues at high temperature, only at cold temperatures.  Diabetes July 2009

Brown fat is higher 13.7 vs. 4.1 in January through March when outside temperatures are low compared to the rest of the year. Journal Nuclear Medicine Aug 2003

Anesthesia, which lowers body temperature, or exposure to cold temperature, increases the uptake of radioactive sugar into fat cells by 14.0-fold and 4.9-fold respectively.  Journal Nuclear Medicine July 2004

The ability of stress hormones norepinephrine to activate brown fat is compromised in low temperature environments. American Journal Physiology July 1988

One theory is that obese people have greater amounts of fat and may therefore feel less cold, meaning they need less brown fat activation. Brazilian Archives Endocrinology Metabolism Dec 2014

PET scan showing activated brown fat left in cold environment versus warm environment.

Brown fat and the diet

A number of dietary factors affect the conversion of white fat to brown fat as well as the activation of brown fat to produce heat.

The intake of animal fats decreases thermogenesis heat generation compared to consumption of vegetable oils.  Animals given lard do not generate as much heat.  Journal Nutrition April 1995

Consumption of fish oil has been shown to increase brown fat in lab animals. European Journal Nutrition Jan 23, 2015

Iron accumulation increases in brown fat. Histology Histopathology April 2013

Insulin is crucial for the development of brown fat.  PLoS One Oct 14, 2014   Iron loading in brown fat has been observed after treatment with insulin. European Journal Histochemistry 2003

Iron-deficient animals given supplemental thyroid hormone exhibit an increase the amount of brown fat in their tissues. Pediatric Research Oct 1985

Experiments show that oxidation of fats is required for cold-induced heat generation thermogenesis in brown fat. Cell Reports Jan 13, 2015   Therefore, iron-induced oxidation of fats suggests iron and easily oxidized fats such as from fish and flaxseed oil are companions in the activation of brown fat.

Mechanism of activation

The molecule that facilitates release of heat energy from brown fat is called uncoupling protein-1 UCP-1.   It is found in the mitochondria power generating bodies of brown fat cells and generates heat.  The activation of brown fat starts with easily- oxidized fats, such as omega-3 fatty acids fish oil, flaxseed oil and the release of norepinephrine, a stress hormone.  The white fat cell is transformed from an energy-conserving to an energy-expending state brown fat cell. Wikipedia

Drugs or other agents that target uncoupling protein-1 UCP-1 in the mitochondria of living cells are being considered for the treatment of obesity and adult-onset diabetes. Frontiers Physiology Jan 2015

What blocks activation of brown fat.

Two factors inhibit production and/or activation of brown fat: iron deficiency and beta blockers.  Activated brown fat is reduced by 30 when patients are given a beta blocker.  Journal Nuclear Medicine July 2004

In 90 of subjects given a beta blocker drug, brown fat does not uptake radioactive sugar as observed in a PET scan. British Journal Radiology Aug 2009

Drugs to activate brown fat

Activation of brown fat is a therapeutic approach to obesity.

Numerous researchers have proposed the development of drugs that stimulate brown fat.  However, pharmacologists say the commercialization of technologies to harness brown fat synthesis are currently still lacking. Hormone Molecular Biology Clinical Investigation July 2014

In a landmark report entitled Brown Adipose fat Tissue and the Cold War Against Obesity published in the journal Diabetes, researchers lament that pharmacological strategies aimed at increasing energy expenditure have not delivered on the promise of efficacy or safety when translated from animal models to humans.   High-dose thyroid hormone or other agents that activate the sympathetic nervous system norepinephrine, while effective at increasing energy expenditure, result in side effects that eliminate them from practical use in the obesity clinic.  Even though exposure to cold temperature may activate brown fat heat energy researchers say this may also result in increased hunger and not be so cool after all. Diabetes Dec 2014

Ironically, physicians widely prescribe a class of drugs that interfere with brown fat activation.  Beta blockers block the uptake of sugar into brown fat. European Journal Nuclear Medicine Molecular Imaging July 2007   Millions of Americans take beta blockers every day to help control blood pressure, heart rate and glaucoma.  They unwittingly have no idea this drug produces significant metabolic disturbance that can lead to obesity, insulin resistance and other health problems.

But why must brown fat activators be expensive and problematic synthetic drugs.

There are a number of nutraceuticals aka dietary supplements that are documented to exert beneficial effects for the production and activation of brown fat.  These include but are not limited to resveratrol, curcumin, EGCG green tea extract, garlic, melatonin, capsaicin from red pepper and Fucoxanthin, a seaweed extract.

Here is some of the published science that substantiates the use of nutraceuticals in brown fat maintenance:

Resveratrol

Researchers only recently recognized resveratrol s ability to increase brown fat heat generation. Molecules Nov 14, 2014

Resveratrol-fed laboratory mice experience formation of brown fat via activation of AMPK, a protein that is an energy-sensing molecule. International Journal Obesity March 12, 2015

Resveratrol is known to activate the Sirtuin-1 survival gene and is a molecular mimic of a limited calorie diet influences the same genes that food deprivation does.   Activation of the Sirtuin-1 survival gene enhances brown fat function and enhanced insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance even on a low-fat diet in laboratory mice. Molecular Metabolism Dec 18, 2014

Garlic

In an animal laboratory, garlic added to a fed a high-fat diet increased the uncoupling protein-1 UCP-1 and the AMPK energy sensing molecule and stimulated brown fat. Journal Nutrition Nov 12, 2011

Laboratory mice fed a high-fat lard diet with garlic increases urinary excretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine and brown fat mass. Journal Nutrition Feb 1999

Melatonin

Brown fat mass increases and is activated in animals given melatonin. Obesity Reviews March 2011

Resveratrol melatonin synergistically increases heme oxygenase the internal antioxidant enzyme that activates brown fat. Journal Pineal Research March 2011

Fucoxanthin

Fuxoxanthin, a brown carotenoid pigment found in seaweed, has been found to reduce abdominal belly white fat and reduces the body weight of laboratory mice via production of the UCP-1 uncoupling protein mentioned earlier in this report.  Biotechnology Journal Sept 2010; Molecular Nutrition Food Research Dec 2009; Biochemistry Biophysical Research Communications July 2005 Fish oil combined with Fucoxanthin also appears to work well together in weight control. Journal Agriculture Food Chemistry Sept 2007

Fucoxanthin also improves insulin resistance and helps to normalize blood glucose levels. Journal Oleo Science Feb 2015

Another mechanism by which Fucoxanthin works to overcome weight gain is activation of internal antioxidant defenses compromised by a high-fat diet via activation of the Nrf2 gene transcription factor.  Nutrition Research Practice Dec 2013

Fish oil

Fish oil and the amino acid taurine also are a good combination to reduce white fat. Journal Food Science June 2012

Curcumin

Curcumin, an extract obtained from turmeric spice, is known to exert its influence on brown fat by activating mitochondrial release of energy. FASEB Journal April 2014

Green tea EGCG

A decade of research confirms that green tea, in particular an extract of green tea EGCG- epigallocatechin gallate reduces fat mass, body weight, fat absorption, triglycerides, cholesterol, insulin and increases heat generation thermogenesis in lab animals. Molecular Nutrition Food Research Feb 2006

EGCG green tea extract was found to increase uncoupling protein-1 in white fat and slowed the accumulation of body fat in high-fat fed mice without reduction of food intake. International Journal Obesity June 2005

Capsaicin

Capsaicin is the hot spicy component of red pepper.  Capsaicin ingestion activates brown fat in humans. American Journal Clinical Nutrition April 2012

In a human study, 6-weeks of daily capsaicin supplementation mimicked the effect of repeated cold exposure in the recruitment of brown fat. Current Opinion Clinical Nutrition Metabolic Care Nov 2013; Journal Clinical Investigation Aug 2013

Capsaicin is known to activate brown fat among individuals who have brown fat but not among those who do not. Current Opinion Lipidology Feb 2013

Final notes

The brown fat paradigm to overcome obesity has yet to take off.  Such a revolution, which was scientifically posited in the 1970s and 1980s got side-tracked when it was mistakenly concluded brown fat was unimportant in adult humans because they have low numbers of brown fat cells.

The second brown fat renaissance for weight management was called for in 2009. Obesity Reviews May 2009   It too has yet to materialize.  It took the National Institutes of Health over 50 years to finally conduct a workshop entitled Exploring The Roles of Brown Fat in Humans February 25-26, 2014. Cell Metabolism Sept 2014

Such a revolution appears to have stalled due to the lack of commercialization of the idea.  Yet safe and economical nutraceuticals abound that markedly increase the numbers and activation of brown fat cells.

While the brown fat revolution may have stalled, physicians would certainly be attracted to the idea of surgically implanting brown fat as has been done successfully on an experimental basis.  A tragic failing of western medicine is what is healthy must be obscenely profitable to gain physician adoption.

The public appears to be waiting for physicians to prescribe and physicians appear to be waiting for Big Pharma to introduce synthetic drugs to do what nutraceuticals have already been proven to do.

It is not like brown fat is a totally unproven idea.  Indeed, it is no wonder there is such a lean population in Japan. The traditional Japanese diet includes green tea, seaweed and fish oil that are strong promoters of brown fat.  The same goes for the Mediterranean Diet centered on wine resveratrol, garlic and fish.

The definitive book on the topic of brown fat, The Brown Fat Revolution written by James R. Lyons MD, was published in 2009 and has not received rave reviews at Amazon.com.  Amazon.com So adoption of dietary and supplemental measures to activate brown fat is slow to materialize.

There are over ten-thousand published online reports about brown fat at the National Library of Medicine dating back to the 1940s.  Differences between the physiological activity of brown and white fat were presented in 1947. Science Jan 31, 1947   There is no shortage of science.

In reality, the brown fat revolution began long ago.  Today it is called the Mediterranean Diet and the traditional Japanese diet.  It doesn t need to be focused around any drug such as Lipitor and statin drugs that were the focus of the cholesterol-phobic era.  It doesn t need to be as seen on TV.

America was once a lean population.  That dates back to the 1970s.  Then came high fructose corn syrup and other obesogens like bisphenol A.  The masses, given choices between what tastes good and what is healthy, will likely continue to opt for the former rather than the latter.

There will continue to be misdirection.  The landmark study that concluded reduced-calorie diets were equally ineffective in achieving weight loss completely overlooked thermogenesis and brown fat. New England Journal Medicine Feb 26, 2009

Individuals don t need to wait for government to fortify foods with brown fat stimulators or physicians to prescribe heat-generating drugs or implant brown fat in operations that are paid by insurance. Jump in a cold shower in the morning to activate your brown fat cells.  Sprinkle some red pepper and garlic powder on your breakfast eggs.  Drink green tea.  Take a resveratrol pill with your evening meal.  Studies show you will get a better night s sleep as well. Neuroscience Letters March27, 2003 2015 Bill Sardi, Knowledge of Health.

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Try my Trimming Trio to combat belly fat and weight gain. Still feeling bloated. Craving carbs and sweets. And feeling tired for no good reason. These.

A recent study confirmed that there are actually two different types of fat tissue called adipose tissue in the human body: white and brown.

Each type of fat has different functions:

White adipose tissue white fat cushions your organs, provides heat insulation and produces energy.

Brown adipose tissue brown fat regulates body temperature and plays a role in diet-induced thermogenesis, which essentially means that brown fat is involved in helping to burn calories.

The study, published in The New England Journal of Medicine, analyzed 1,972 patients and over 3,640 consecutive F-fluorodeoxyglucose PET and CT scans to confirm and learn more about brown fat.

In the study, researchers found that  there appears to be more, or at least more active, brown fat in lean, young individuals than older, obese individuals; this suggests that having more brown fat may protect against obesity. 1

According to Aaron M. Cypess, MD, PhD, with Joslin Diabetes Center in Boston, these findings are in agreement with rodent studies showing that rats with higher levels of brown fat are protected from diet-induced obesity and diabetes.2

According to Dr. Cypess, the study on humans showed that people with more brown fat were not as obese as people who did not have as much brown fat. The brown fat takes calories and burns them up, which scientists feel makes brown fat an organ of energy expenditure.

Dr. Cypess further stated that the activity of brown fat can be tested and tracked. This  makes it a good place to focus when researching treatment and prevention strategies for obesity, diabetes and heart disease.

Here are some of the study s findings on brown fat based on age, gender, weight and lifestyle:3

Brown fat and gender: brown adipose tissue was found in 7.5 women and 3.1 men. According to the study, women appear to have a greater ability to increase the size and mass of brown fat.

Brown fat and age: brown adipose tissue was found more often in people under 50 years of age.

Brown fat and weight: brown adipose tissue was found in people who were the least obese.

Brown fat and lifestyle: brown adipose tissue was found more often in patients not using beta-blockers a class of drugs used for conditions like cardiac arrhythmias, cardioprotection after heart attack and hypertension, those with the lowest fasting plasma glucose levels and those whonever smoked.

Can Brown Fat Make You Thin.

It appears that research is supporting that brown adipose tissue may actually help you stay thin.

How does it do this.

Brown adipose tissue is found around organs that have high metabolic activity, like your adrenals, liver and kidneys. The brown fat actually keeps these organs at a 98.6 degrees F. temperature, allowing their enzymes to work most efficiently.4

Your thyroid plays a role in influencing brown adipose tissue to fuel your mitochondria producers of cellular energy to produce energy, but this process also requires hormones from your adrenals.

Brown fat is your friend when it comes to losing weight or maintaining a healthy weight because if you eat more than your body needs, it will burn off those excess calories as heat.5 It s the brown fat that helps you burn those extra calories you might consume on a given day without gaining weight.

How to Activate Brown Fat

While brown fat does decrease with age, there is a way to make sure you keep your brown fat activated.

The key to activating your brown fat is a healthy thyroid and adrenals.

Here s what inhibits brown fat and what you can do to activate it:6

Low thyroid and adrenal fatigue can inhibit brown fat activity - If your thyroid is healthy, it will create heat and activate your brown fat. But if you have low thyroid, your brown fat activity will be lowered as well. In conditions of low thyroid, like hypothyroidism, your adrenals no longer secrete enough of the hormone norepinepherine, which activates your brown fat. If you ever wondered why low thyroid makes you feel cold, this explains it.

What you can do: You can nourish your thyroid and adrenals by following a healthy Body Ecology diet, including plenty of minerals and fermented foods and drinks. Unfortunately, even the best organic vegetables don t have the mineral punch they used to. So while eating healthy is key, adding sea vegetables and supplements can give you a leg up on thyroid and adrenal health.

Two great options are Ocean Plant Extract and Ancient Earth Minerals. To learn more about how these natural vitamin and mineral-rich whole food supplements can help boost your thyroid and adrenals, read: Russia s Miracle Heavy Metal Cleansing Sea Vegetable and Why People – Especially Kids – Are Not Getting Enough Minerals and What to Do About It.

Stress - Who isn t stressed these days. We rush around so much that stress has practically become the norm. Unfortunately, stress inhibits your brown fat activity, so this is one more reason to reduce stress.

What you can do: read How to De-Stress and Refocus on YOU to learn some tips for reducing stress and boosting your brown fat activity. The good news is, reducing stress is a great way to boost your thyroid, adrenals and overall health too.

Under eating or Overeating – Eating too little or too much can inhibit brown fat activity.

What you can do: Before you eat, take a moment to slow down and listen to your body. Commit to taking some deep breaths and tuning into your true appetite. Instead of denying yourself food when you are hungry, like too many dieters do, carry healthy snacks for between meal hunger pains, like soaked almonds, miso soup or cultured vegetables.

During meals, chew your food thoroughly and take your time eating. Give your body a chance to decide if you really need more food. Most of all follow your body s signals for hunger, don t let the cravings or worries of your mind control your body.

We ve heard from hundreds people following the Body Ecology lifestyle that they begin to get in touch with their natural appetite again. This is because Body Ecology helps you heal your digestion, so that your body can more easily absorb the nutrients it needs.

Sugar – A high sugar diet reduces brown fat activity. Today s diets are MUCH too high in sugar, so it s no wonder that weight gain and obesity are on the rise.

What you can do: Instead, satisfy your sweet tooth with all natural, zero-calorie, zero glycemic index Lakanto or our always popular and best-tasting Stevia concentrate. These natural sugar substitutes allow you to enjoy the sweet taste without damaging your body or your brown fat activity.

Low-fat diets or bad fats – You ve probably seen the headlines over the past few years that eating the RIGHT fats can actually keep you thin. Now you know why because too little fat or the wrong kinds of fats can reduce your brown fat activity.

What you can do: Instead, you can focus on high omega-3 essential fatty acids, which are key for brown fat activity. Great options are wild-caught fish like salmon, fish oil supplements, like Omega-3 Mint Chewbursts and hemp oil. But make sure that the oils you use are organic and unrefined. Refined fats are stripped of their essential fatty acids and difficult for your liver to process. To learn more, read: Why the Processing of Consumable Oils has Devastated America s Health.

Over exercising – Too much exercise can lower your brown fat activity.

What you can do: Tune into your body to see how much movement you need. Create a plan that makes you feel good, but does not exhaust you. Walking and yoga are great options.

Too much or too little heat – If the temperature is too hot, you may not activate your brown fat. Likewise, you don t want to get too cold.

What you can do: While more research needs to be done on this, it appears that a cool temperature can activate brown fat. Researchers don t know if this actually helps with weight loss or if people will overcompensate by eating more. If you experiment with this, keep the temperature a little cool, but not too cold and only for moderate amounts of time. You might also consider wearing a few less layers in the winter. But remember that the idea is not to create discomfort, so follow your body s signals.

Another great tip is to drink green tea, which has been shown to help activate brown fat AND help you lose weight and detoxify.

Each of these tips gives you the triple benefit of activating brown fat and boosting your thyroid and adrenalsa gift your body will thank you for.

Sources:

Albright, Ann L. and Stern, Judity S. Adipose Tissue. Department of Nutrition and Internal Medicine, University of California at Davis.

1 Brown adipose tissue: therapeutic target in obesity treatment. Cypess AM. N Engl JMed. 2009;309-1517. 38872

2 ibid.

3 ibid.

4 Simontacchi, Carol, C.C.N., MS. Weight Success for a Lifetime. Basic Health Publications CA: 2005. pp. 144 – 145.

5 ibid.

6 ibid.

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This is a list of the longest running United States cable television series, ordered by number of broadcast seasons.

To qualify for this list, the programming must originate in North America and shown nationally in the United States and be first-run as opposed to a repackaging of previously aired material or material released in other media. For the purposes of this list, series that were available only on a local or regional basis will be excluded. For series that originated on U.S. broadcast networks or broadcast syndication and then was picked up by a national cable network, only the amount aired nationally on cable as original programming is represented here.

This film, television or video-related list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it with reliably sourced additions.

Contents

1 List

1.1 25 seasons

1.2 20–24 seasons

1.3 15–19 seasons

1.4 12–14 seasons

1.5 10–11 seasons

2 See also

3 Notes

List edit

Series shaded in light blue are currently in production.

25 seasons edit

Number of

seasons

Series

Network

First broadcast

Last broadcast

episodes

36

The 700 Club 1

CBN Cable

/The Family Channel

/Fox Family/ABC Family

1977

present

Inside the NFL

HBO/Showtime

34

SportsCenter

ESPN

September 7, 1979

50,000

33

Bobby Jones Gospel

BET

January 27, 1980

Washington Journal 2

C-SPAN

October 7, 1980

30

Moneyline 3

CNN

June 1, 1980

November 11, 2009

Gilad s Bodies in Motion

1983

1994

Fox Sports

1995

Discovery Health

2004

FitTV

2011

Discovery Fit Health

29

NASCAR on ESPN

ESPN/ESPN2

1981

2002

2007

28

The Real World

MTV

1992

532

ESPN SpeedWorld

1979

2006

National Geographic

Explorer 4

Nickelodeon

1985

1986

233

WTBS-LD/TBS

1999

CNBC

2001

MSNBC 5

2005

Grand Ole Opry Live 6

TNN

April 20, 1985

August 2001

CMT

2003

GAC 7

26

Sunday NFL Countdown

September 7, 1987

College GameDay

football series

September 1987

NFL Primetime

1987

Biography 8

A E

April 6, 1987 9

August 2006

Biography Channel

present 10

25

The Sports Reporters

ESPN 11

October 9, 1988

NBA on TNT

TNT

October 30, 1988

Larry King Live

June 3, 1985

December 18, 2010

20–24 seasons edit

24

WCW Saturday Night 12

WTCG/WTBS/TBS

December 17, 1976 13

June 24, 2000

Baseball Tonight

March 19, 1990

ESPN Major League

Baseball 14

ESPN, ESPN2 15

April 15, 1990

Outside the Lines

1990

23

Crossfire

1982

June 3, 2005

Real World/Road Rules

Challenge

September 28, 1997

The Challenge

1998

22

Investigative Reports

September 27, 1991

E. News 16

E.

September 1, 1991

21

Nick News with

Linda Ellerbee

Reliable Sources

March 7, 1992

Style with Elsa Klensch

January 2001

20

NFL Matchup

ESPN, ESPN2 17

September 5, 1993

Monday Night Countdown

September 6, 1993

Power Rangers

Fox Fox Kids, ABC,

ABC Family, Toon Disney,

Nickelodeon, Nicktoons,

The CW Vortexx

August 28, 1993

747

WWE Monday Night Raw

USA

January 11, 1993

September 18, 2000

1,000

TNN/Spike TV

September 25, 2000

September 26, 2005

October 3, 2005

ESPN, ESPN2 18

Evans and Novak 19

September 1982

November 9, 2002

15–19 seasons edit

19

Real Sports with Bryant Gumbel

HBO

Squawk Box

Inside the Actors Studio

Bravo

August 14, 1994

ESPN Sunday Night Football 20

November 8, 1987 21

January 1, 2006

NASCAR on TBS

TBS

2000

Modern Marvels

History

January 1, 1995

660

South Park

Comedy Central

August 13, 1997

267

18

Golf Talk

Golf Channel

January 17, 1995

Golf Central

January 18, 1995

Showbiz Today 22

October 29, 1984

Private Screenings

TCM

January 1, 1996

17

E. True Hollywood Story

1996

501

Diners, Drive-Ins and Dives

Food Network

November 4, 2006

The Daily Show

July 22, 1996

2,716

Fox News Live

Fox News Channel

October 6, 1996

The O Reilly Factor 23

5,321

A Wedding Story

TLC

WNBA on ESPN

1997

Your World with Neil Cavuto

USA Tuesday Night Fights

March 30, 1982

Capital Gang

September 7, 1988

16

MTV Unplugged

November 26, 1989

November 10, 2005 24

108

Booknotes

April 2, 1989

December 5, 2004

801

Denise Austin s Daily Workout

Lifetime

Hardball with Chris Matthews 25

MSNBC

NFL Films Game of the Week 26

NFL Network

November 4, 2003

15

Fox Friends

February 1, 1998

12–14 seasons edit

14

Forensic Files

A.K.A. Medical Detectives

TLC then truTV

formerly Court TV

April, 1996

June 2011 27

410

An Evening at the Improv

February 3, 1982

SpeedWeek

Video Soul

June 26, 1983

Road Rules

July 19, 1995

September 27, 2004 28

Good Eats

July 7, 1999

February 10, 2012

244

X-Play

G4

2013

1,000

13

NASCAR on TNT

July 22, 2001

Illegal Knowledge

Access Tucson

March 24, 2002

66

MythBusters

Discovery Channel

September 23, 2003

209

Tim Russert

2008

Homes Across America 29

HGTV

December 1994

October 12, 2005

Hannity Colmes 30

January 9, 2009

Gardening by the Yard

2009

12

Monday Night Baseball

April 7, 2002

Room by Room

December 31, 1994

2006 31

30 Minute Meals

November 17, 2001

445

BET s Top 25

September 22, 2001

NASCAR on Speed

Speed

February 11, 2002

August 16, 2013

American Sports Cavalcade

Intimate Portrait

January 1995

October 2005

10–11 seasons edit

11

Around the Horn

November 4, 2002

2,310

Barefoot Contessa

November 30, 2002

111

Closing Bell

February 4, 2002

The Daily Buzz

The CW Plus

September 16, 2002

NBA Countdown

December 25, 2002

NBA Shootaround

October 25, 2002

NBA on ESPN

ESPN and ESPN2

January 2003

On the Record

w/ Greta Van Susteren

February 2002

Studio B with Shepard Smith

August 2002

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See also edit

Lists of longest running U.S. shows by broadcast type:

List of longest-running United States television series

List of longest-running U.S. broadcast network television series

List of longest-running U.S. primetime television series

List of longest-running U.S. syndicated television series

Lists of longest running shows internationally:

List of longest-running TV shows by category- international list

List of longest running U.K. television series

List of longest running Australian television series

List of shortest running shows:

List of television series cancelled after one episode

List of television series cancelled before airing an episode

Notes edit

Aired locally on WYAH-TV Portsmouth, Virginia, 1966–1977, syndicated 1972-present; evolved from locally broadcast telethons 1962–1966

Weekend editions are simulcast on the BBC Parliament channel with the name America This Week

Became Lou Dobbs Moneyline in 2001, Lou Dobbs Tonight in 2003

Host: Tom Chapin 1985–1988, Robert Urich 1988–1995, Bob Ballard 1988–1995, Boyd Matson 1995–2003, Michael Fay 2001, Lisa Ling 2003-

Show renamed National Geographic Ultimate Explorer 2003–2005

Oldest continuously running radio program, airing on WSM radio, Nashville, Tennessee

As Grand Ole Opry Live.

Originated on CBS

Reran CBS originals, 1984–1987

Rebroadcast A E originals, 1999–2006

Program rebroadcast later the same day on ESPNEWS

Previously Georgia Championship Wrestling 1972–1984, World Championship Wrestling 1984–1992

Date when WTCG was distributed nationally via cable WTCG evolved into TBS. Broadcast on WTCG started January 1972.

Includes Sunday Night Baseball, Wednesday Night Baseball, etc.

ESPN2 started broadcasting major league baseball games in 2002 in addition to those offered by ESPN

Previously E. News Daily and E. News Live

Presently, each episode first airs on ESPN2 on Fridays, then is repeated on ESPN two days later

Other names: Evans, Novak, Hunt, and Shields 1998–2001, Novak, Hunt, and Shields 2001–2002

Moved to NBC in 2006, at which time Monday Night Football moves from ABC to ESPN

Sunday Night Football shared with TNT, with TNT getting the first half of the season, ESPN the second half, 1990–1997

Also known as CNN Showbiz Today

Originally The O Reilly Report

New episodes sporadic after 2001

Originally Politics with Chris Matthews

First-run syndication 1965–1997

Show is on hiatus and may return on a different network under the original title of Medical Detectives. Old episodes were airing on Lifetime as of August 2011.

The start of Season 15 has been announced for January 2008

Had 13 week seasons, according to HGTV

Successor series Hannity debuted January 12, 2009.

HGTV continues to present reruns after non-renewal of series

Special preview airing, April 16, 1994

Simulcast of live program at WFAN New York

Also known as MST3K; first aired locally on KTMA, 1988–1989

official end of series, although one unofficial episode Merlin s Shop of Mystical Wonders was shown a month later

Longest-running science fiction series in the United States.

According to Sci Fi Wire

Cancellation announced by Sci Fi Channel, August 21, 2006

Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php.title List_of_longest-running_U.S._cable_television_series oldid 696377227

Categories: Lists of American television seriesCable television in the United StatesLists of longest-running U.S. TV shows.

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How does a BitTorrent-Client work.

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To download a torrent, you need to find a special server-torrent tracker. We can recommend you as one of the easiest and understandable sites of such kind. On this server, you select the file and start quick download. Of course, physically, there are no files on the server itself. All of them are located on the computers of other users and server shows just a list of files. The very same server coordinates the distribution of the files from one users to another. If it happens so that no user is distributing user is online, then downloading torrents is impossible, because in fact there is nowhere to take it. If this happens, try to free download torrent in the evening or at night, usually at this time there are more members that are active. That s the way the answer to another question: where to download the torrent. And the answer is - of course, from a site or server tracker, like slowtorrent.com. Download torrent.

It is also worth remembering that the torrent client runs in the background and consumes very few resources of your computer. So you can safely work or study, while download torrent online. And you can put files to download any number as long as there is enough of hard disk memory.

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One of the most popular BitTorrent-clients is μTorrent. It is easy to use and not greedy for computer resources. Small footprint, quick to install, does not require any pre-setting, that is immediately ready for use.

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Download torrent. PIR user who simply participate in the distributing.

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Let us summarize the information. In general, BitTorrent or simply torrent is an Internet protocol that allows you to quickly download large files. In contrast to the usual download site, using the BitTorrent file takes piece by piece in a large number of users. This allows you to download large files like music albums, movies and TV series much faster than would be obtained by means of other protocols torrent tracker.

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When using torrents, the system is very different. The file is not downloaded from any server, and, as already mentioned, it is drawn in part from a plurality of users so we do not depend on the load on a single server and its availability. However, it will not work without the server. You need a torrent client - a special program for downloading and assembling the elements of the file together. BitTorrent works based on the principle you give me, I have what you have : it is accepted not only for downloading but also to distribute, and download speeds often depends on the upload speed it all depends on how this is principled about this torrent tracker. Here is how it works:

- User opens a torrent client special torrent-file - a tiny file that corresponds to the large files scattered on the internet;

- Torrent client reads torrent-file and binds said it tracker to find the computers where it is currently running as a client program, and you want us to have the entire file so-called LEDs, or siderite - seeds or part peers - peers, most of all, they, like us, are now busy downloading ;

- The tracker identifies the swarm of computers that have fragments or entire file and are in the process of downloading or distribution, and involves you in it;

- The tracker helps the client of software components share files with computers in the swarm, as a result your computer receives pieces of the file from different sources, and the client gathers them together,

- If you leave your bittorrent client running after the download is finished, you will be in a number of seeders and will be able to raise its rating on the tracker, to continue to download faster. At too low rating may apply different restrictions to download, for example, no more than one file at a time, or load may be temporarily forbidden for those who are trying to only receive, not handing out - for so-called leechers from the word leech.

Rating is a very commonly used tool to stimulate users to stay on hand, but there is a tracker, where the rating system is not applied torrent tracker.

It is noteworthy that the more popular the file is, the greater the oxides and the faster the download is note, if you boot from a traditional server situation is the opposite.

As you have already understood, installing, configuring and using the torrent client is very simple and useful. To download through BitTorrent, you must first install the program - a torrent client. You may also need to adjust the firewall settings if you use it, so that it is allowed to take the torrent files. But first things first:

- Download the torrent client, for example, site run the installation by double clicking on the icon the installation process intuitive, you can leave the default settings, and upon its completion the message about successful installation ;

- Be online, find a movie you want to download and open it in uTorrent;

- Wait for uTorrent to download movies, parallel distributing it in fragments;

- If desired, leave uTorrent running, ie remain on hand.

If the download of the film in our example does not start, then either now no one gives out it, or your firewall software that blocks unauthorized access to computer ports blocks the uTorrent. Go to the firewall settings and open ports from 6881 to 6889 for incoming traffic which uses them BitTorrent. You may also need to enable port forwarding IP-address of your computer to the port from 6881 to 6889, to other computers on a swarm might see you. Here, you may need professional help or more detailed acquaintance with the principles of the firewall settings bad advice - you can simply disable the firewall.

Features of the BitTorrent network. BitTorrent is different from similar P2P-protocol: for each distributed file, a file with extension torrent, which contains information about the distributed file. This torrent-file can be distributed through any channels of communication such as lists of torrent-files can be laid out on special Web servers located in the user s network, sent via email, posted to blogs or news feeds RSS. Itself torrent-file contains meta information for example, hash sum address tracker, and so on of the distributed data. These are distributed through its own communications protocol based on TCP / IP.

The basic principle of the record, the distribution file is completely controlled tracker whose address is in the torrent-file, so that users download the file itself called Leecher begins to distribute as soon as downloading is suitable for this first part. Cooperative user behavior is inherent in the very architecture of the protocol, and in principle can not be selfish.

Architecture of BitTorrent provides for a file, put in a network, the only owner who is interested in its propagation. The original owner of the file generates a torrent-file. The client, in turn, downloads a file for HTTP, FTP, or simply handing out any way with extension torrent, which contains information about the address of the owner, the name and size of the desired file and its hash. That s all you need to track the progress of the process, control and response capabilities users to download an incomplete or empty file.

The key to the success of any peer to peer network typically requires users not only upload files, but also to share them with others. Meanwhile, for various reasons mostly related to payment channels, quite often users prefer as soon as possible to download the file and shut, despite the fact that the rules of etiquette written request to share with other users. This reduces the amount of available sources, because of which suffer from stability and quality of the network. The BitTorrent provides a special method of dealing with selfish leeches, which involves the user rating, where the most generous given priority on foreign servers, and those who share unwilling boot Popular files go to the end of the queue.

Participation in the exchange system of tracker-server programmers BitTorrent gave an opportunity to introduce an algorithm that prevents the appearance of incomplete files. Since the tracker stores information about segments successfully loaded on each machine, the file download will start to force new customers with the most rare segment. If BitTorrent client downloads large files, divided into 200 parts, it does not mean that the process will begin with the segment number 01 and end segment. 200. The customer always receives the segment, which occupies the last place on the prevalence of that, ideally after 200 connections to the central the server will provide an opportunity to put in a peer entire file. torrent tracker.

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